3500 BCE ubaid
THE LANDS OF SUMER AND AKKAD
Trend of recent archaeological
research—The study of origins—The Neolithic period in the Aegean area,
in the region of the Mediterranean, and in the Nile Valley—Scarcity of
Neolithic remains in Babylonia due largely to character of the
country—Problems raised by excavations in Persia and Russian
Turkestan—Comparison of the earliest cultural remains in Egypt and
Babylonia—The earliest known inhabitants of South Babylonian sites—The
"Sumerian Controversy" and a shifting of the problem at issue—Early
relations of Sumerians and Semites—The lands of Sumer and Akkad—Natural
boundaries—Influence of geological structure—Effect of river
deposits—Euphrates and the Persian Gulf—Comparison of Tigris and
Euphrates—The Shatt en-Nîl and the Shatt el-Kâr—The early course of
Euphrates and a tendency of the river to break away westward—Changes in
the swamps—Distribution of population and the position of early
cities—Rise and fall of the rivers and the regulation of the
water—Boundary between Sumer and Akkad—Early names for Babylonia—"The
Land" and its significance—Terminology—
EARLY CITIES AND THE RACIAL CHARACTER OF THEIR INHABITANTS
Characteristics of early Babylonian
sites—The French excavations at Tello—The names Shirpurla and
Lagash—Results of De Sarzec's work—German excavations at Surghul and
El-Hibba—The so-called "fire-necropoles"—Jôkha and its ancient
name—Other mounds in the region of the Shatt el-Kâr—Hammâm—Tell
'Îd—Systematic excavations at Fâra (Shuruppak)—Sumerian dwelling-houses
and circular buildings of unknown use—Sarcophagus-graves and
mat-burials—Differences in burial customs—Diggings at Abû Hatab
(Kisurra)—Pot-burials—Partial examination of Bismâya
(Adab)—Hêtime—Jidr—The fate of cities which escaped the Western
Semites—American excavations at Nippur—British work at Warka (Erech),
Senkera (Larsa), Tell Sifr, Tell Medîna, Mukayyar (Ur), Abû Shahrain
(Eridu), and Tell Lahm—Our knowledge of North Babylonian
sites—Excavations at Abû Habba (Sippar), and recent work at Babylon and
Borsippa—The sites of Agade, Cutha, Kish and Opis—The French excavations
at Susa—Sources of our information on the racial problem—Sumerian and
Semitic types—Contrasts[Pg xiv] in
treatment of the hair, physical features, and dress—Apparent
inconsistencies—Evidence of the later and the earlier monuments—Evidence
from the racial character of Sumerian gods—Professor Meyer's theory and
the linguistic evidence—Present condition of the problem—The original
home and racial affinity of the Sumerians—Path of the Semitic
conquest—Origin of the Western Semites—The eastern limits of Semitic
influence
THE AGE AND PRINCIPAL ACHIEVEMENTS OF SUMERIAN CIVILIZATION
Effect of recent research on older
systems of chronology—Reduction of very early dates and articulation of
historical periods—Danger of the reaction going too far and the
necessity for noting where evidence gives place to conjecture—Chronology
of the remoter ages and our sources of information—Classification of
material—Bases of the later native lists and the chronological system of
Berossus—Palaeography and systematic excavation—Relation of the early
chronology to that of the later periods—Effect of recent archaeological
and epigraphic evidence—The process of reckoning from below and the
foundations on which we may build—Points upon which there is still a
difference of opinion—Date for the foundation of the Babylonian
Monarchy—Approximate character of all earlier dates and the need to
think in periods—Probable dates for the Dynasties of Ur and Isin—Dates
for the earlier epochs and for the first traces of Sumerian
civilization—Pre-Babylonian invention of cuneiform writing—The origins
of Sumerian culture to be traced to an age when it was not
Sumerian—Relative interest attaching to many Sumerian
achievements—Noteworthy character of the Sumerian arts of sculpture and
engraving—The respective contributions of Sumerian and Semite—Methods of
composition in Sumerian sculpture and attempts at an unconventional
treatment—Perfection of detail in the best Sumerian work—Casting in
metal and the question of copper or bronze—Solid and hollow castings and
copper plating—Terra-cotta figurines—The arts of inlaying and
engraving—The more fantastic side of Sumerian art—Growth of a
naturalistic treatment in Sumerian design—Period of decadence
THE EARLIEST SETTLEMENTS IN SUMER; THE DAWN OF HISTORY AND THE RISE OF LAGASH
Origin of the great cities—Local
cult-centres in the prehistoric period—The earliest Sumerian
settlements—Development of the city-god and evolution of a
pantheon—Lunar and solar cults—Gradual growth of a city illustrated by
the early history of Nippur and its shrine—Buildings of the earliest
Sumerian period at Tello—Store-houses and washing-places of a primitive
agricultural community—The inhabitants of the country as portrayed in
archaic sculpture—Earliest written records and the prehistoric system of
land tenure—The first rulers of Shuruppak and their office—Kings and
patesis of early city-states—The dawn of history in Lagash and the[Pg xv] suzerainty of Kish—Rivalry of Lagash and Umma and the Treaty of Mesilim—The rôle of
the city-god and the theocratic feeling of the time—Early struggles of
Kish for supremacy—Connotation of royal titles in the early Sumerian
period—Ur-Ninâ the founder of a dynasty in Lagash—His reign and
policy—His sons and household—The position of Sumerian women in social
and official life—The status of Lagash under Akurgal—
WARS OF THE CITY-STATES; EANNATUM AND THE STELE OF THE VULTURES
Condition of Sumer on the accession of
Eannatum—Outbreak of war between Umma and Lagash—Raid of Ningirsu's
territory and Eannatum's vision—The defeat of Ush, patesi of Umma, and
the terms of peace imposed on his successor—The frontier-ditch and the
stelæ of delimitation—Ratification of the treaty at the
frontier-shrines—Oath-formulæ upon the Stele of the Vultures—Original
form of the Stele and the fragments that have been
recovered—Reconstitution of the scenes upon it—Ningirsu and his
net—Eannatum in battle and on the march—Weapons of the Sumerians and
their method of fighting in close phalanx—Shield-bearers and
lance-bearers—Subsidiary use of the battle-axe—The royal arms and
body-guard—The burial of the dead after battle—Order of Eannatum's
conquests—Relations of Kish and Umma—The defeat of Kish, Opis and Mari,
and Eannatum's suzerainty in the north—Date of his southern conquests
and evidence of his authority in Sumer—His relations with Elam, and the
other groups of his campaigns—Position of Lagash under Eannatum—His
system of irrigation—Estimate of his reign—
THE FALL OF LAGASH
Cause of break in the direct succession
at Lagash—Umma and Lagash in the reign of Enannatum I.—Urlumma's
successful raid—His defeat by Entemena and the annexation of his
city—Entemena's cone and its summary of historical events—Extent of
Entemena's dominion—Sources for history of the period between Enannatum
II. and Urukagina—The relative order of Enetarzi, Enlitarzi and
Lugal-anda—Period of unrest in Lagash—Secular authority of the chief
priests and weakening of the patesiate—Struggles for the succession—The
sealings of Lugal-anda and his wife—Break in traditions inaugurated by
Urukagina—Causes of an increase in officialdom and oppression—The
privileges of the city-god usurped by the patesi and his
palace—Tax-gatherers and inspectors "down to the sea"—Misappropriation
of sacred lands and temple-property, and corruption of the
priesthood—The reforms of Urukagina—Abolition of unnecessary posts and
stamping out of abuses—Revision of burial fees—Penalties for theft and
protection for the poorer classes—Abolition of diviner's fees and
regulation of divorce—The laws of Urukagina and the Sumerian origin of
Hammurabi's Code—Urukagina's relations to other cities—Effect of his
reforms on the stability of the state—The fall of Lagash—
EARLY RULERS OF SUMER AND KINGS OF KISH
Close of an epoch in Sumerian
history—Increase in the power of Umma and transference of the capital to
Erech—Extent of Lugal-zaggisi's empire, and his expedition to the
Mediterranean coast—Period of Lugal-kigub-nidudu and Lugal-kisalsi—The
dual kingdom of Erech and Ur—Eushagkushanna of Sumer and his struggle
with Kish—Confederation of Kish and Opis—Enbi-Ishtar of Kish and a
temporary check to Semitic expansion southwards—The later kingdom of
Kish—Date of Urumush and extent of his empire—Economic conditions in
Akkad as revealed by the Obelisk of Manishtusu—Period of Manishtusu's
reign and his military expeditions—His statues from Susa—Elam and the
earlier Semites—A period of transition—New light on the foundations of
the Akkadian Empire—
THE EMPIRE OF AKKAD AND ITS RELATION TO KISH
Sargon of Agade and his
significance—Early recognition of his place in history—The later
traditions of Sargon and the contemporary records of Shar-Gani-sharri's
reign—Discovery at Susa of a monument of "Sharru-Gi, the
King"—Probability that he was Manishtusu's father and the founder of the
kingdom of Kish—Who, then, was Sargon?—Indications that only names and
not facts have been confused in the tradition—The debt of Akkad to Kish
in art and politics—Expansion of Semitic authority westward under
Shar-Gani-sharri—The alleged conquest of Cyprus—Commercial intercourse
at the period and the disappearance of the city-state—Evidence of a
policy of deportation—The conquest of Narâm-Sin and the "Kingdom of the
Four Quarters"—His Stele of Victory and his relations with
Elam—Narâm-Sin at the upper reaches of the Tigris, and the history of
the Pir Hussein Stele—Narâm-Sin's successors—Representations of Semitic
battle-scenes—The Lagash Stele of Victory, probably commemorating the
original conquest of Kish by Akkad—Independent Semitic principalities
beyond the limits of Sumer and Akkad—The reason of Akkadian pre-eminence
and the deification of Semitic kings—
THE LATER RULERS OF LAGASH
Sumerian reaction tempered by Semitic
influence—Length of the intervening period between the Sargonic era and
that of Ur—Evidence from Lagash of a sequence of rulers in that city who
bridge the gap—Archaeological and epigraphic data—Political condition
of Sumer and the semi-independent position enjoyed by Lagash—Ur-Bau
representative of the earlier patesis of this epoch—Increase in the
authority of Lagash under Gudea—His conquest of Anshan—His relations
with Syria, Arabia, and the Persian Gulf—His influence of a commercial
rather than of a political character—Development in the art of building
which marked the later Sumerian[Pg xvii] period—Evolution
of the Babylonian brick and evidence of new architectural ideas—The
rebuilding of E-ninnû and the elaborate character of Sumerian ritual—The
art of Gudea's period—His reign the golden age of Lagash—Gudea's
posthumous deification and his cult—The relations of his son,
Ur-Ningirsu, to the Dynasty of Ur—
THE DYNASTY OF UR AND THE KINGDOM OF SUMER AND AKKAD
The part taken by Ur against Semitic
domination in an earlier age, and her subsequent history—Organization of
her resources under Ur-Engur—His claim to have founded the kingdom of
Sumer and Akkad—The subjugation of Akkad by Dungi and the Sumerian
national revival—Contrast in Dungi's treatment of Babylon and
Eridu—Further evidence of Sumerian reaction—The conquests of Dungi's
earlier years and his acquisition of regions formerly held by Akkad—His
adoption of the bow as a national weapon—His Elamite campaigns and the
difficulty in retaining control of conquered provinces—His change of
title and assumption of divine rank—Survival of Semitic influence in
Elam under Sumerian domination—Character of Dungi's Elamite
administration—His reforms in the official weight-standards and the
system of time-reckoning—Continuation of Dungi's policy by his
successors—The cult of the reigning monarch carried to extravagant
lengths—Results of administrative centralization when accompanied by a
complete delegation of authority by the king—Plurality of offices and
provincial misgovernment the principal causes of a decline in the power
of Ur
RULERS OF ELAM, THE DYNASTY OF ISIN, AND THE RISE OF BABYLON
Continuity of the kingdom of Sumer and
Akkad and the racial character of the kings of Isin—The Elamite invasion
which put an end to the Dynasty of Ur—Native rulers of Elam represented
by the dynasties of Khutran-tepti and Ebarti—Evidence that a change in
titles did not reflect a revolution in the political condition of
Elam—No period of Elamite control in Babylonia followed the fall of
Ur—Sources for the history of the Dynasty of Isin—The family of
Ishbi-Ura and the cause of a break in the succession—Rise of an
independent kingdom in Larsa and Ur, and the possibility of a second
Elamite invasion—The family of Ur-Ninib followed by a period of unrest
in Isin—Relation of the Dynasty of Isin to that of Babylon—The suggested
Amorite invasion in the time of Libit-Ishtar disproved—The capture of
Isin in Sin-muballit's reign an episode in the war of Babylon with
Larsa—The last kings of Isin and the foundation of the Babylonian
Monarchy—Position of Babylon in the later historical periods, and the
close of the independent political career of the Sumerians as a race—The
survival of their cultural influence
